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Extra resources for Oxford Ideas Institutions And Trade
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Since the consensus rule applied in deciding new rules in GATT rounds, as it still does in the WTO, one may wonder why the EU allowed the idea of agricultural exceptionalism, as a defence of the CAP, to be eroded as the ideational underpinning of the international farm trade regime. The EU believed that agricultural markets were not particularly effective in generating desired social outcomes, and consequently that government intervention was required. Whilst the EU’s proposal for the UR negotiations acknowledged the need to reduce market distortions, its tenor nonetheless emphasized a managed market approach.
At the international level, ‘national governments seek to maximize their own ability to satisfy domestic pressures, while minimizing the adverse consequences of foreign developments’ (Putnam 1988: 434). International negotiators on both sides of the negotiating table are constrained by the fact that the agreements made must be ratified domestically. Therefore, international negotiators must consult domestic groups, such as interest groups, politicians, and public authorities, in order to establish what could be ratified in the domestic political arena.
Thus, agriculture was given exceptional treatment in GATT. Articles XI and XVI meant that agriculture was shielded from the full force of rules regarding the use of quantitative import restrictions, and export subsidies. Thus, the farming industry has had exceptional treatment in the international trade rules in force since 1947, mirroring the domestic agricultural policies in many of GATT’s Contracting Parties, including the United States and the European countries which a decade later formed the European Economic Community (now the EU).