
By Abdulhadi Khalaf, Giacomo Luciani
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New York: Columbia University Press. 35 Constitutional Reform and Political Participatio in the Gulf The ability of Gulf ruling families to withstand challenges in the past has partly been due to their successful mobilization of domestic and external forces. These forces also helped the ruling families build an expansive and modern infrastructure and to adopt strategies that limited the consequences of modernization on the political institutions and relations in their societies. While past successes are notable, the current situation has several new elements and fresh challenges.
Disputes among competing factions of the al-Khalifa still exist. The ambitious reforms undertaken by Shaikh Hamad, now King of Bahrain, since assuming power in 1999, included measures to promote unity within the ruling family and to position himself as the supreme authority, but failed to undermine the power base of other factions within the al-Khalifa. The most important of these factions, and by far the most resourceful, is led by the King’s own uncle, Khalifa bin Salman, the country’s prime minister since its independence in 1971.
In the three aforementioned generations, the “documents” are variously called Basic Laws, Fundamental Systems of Government, or Constitutions (permanent or temporary), but in each and every case, we can observe the interplay of internal and external actors, as well as general trends of top-down constitutional processes, where the model of “pacted” constitutions is frequently cornered, and constitutions are more frequently “granted” or “octroyées” with an evident downside in terms of legitimation.